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Language Arts

Grammar, writing and speaking — all in one page 📖

📖 Test: Wednesday, August 26
1

🔑 Modal Verbs: Should, Have to, Must

Modal verbs are helper verbs. They come before the main verb and change its meaning — telling us if something is advice, a rule or an obligation.

subject + MODAL + base verb  ·  no to, no -s, no -ing
✅ She should study tonight.    ❌ She should to study.    ❌ She should studies.
ModalWhat it meansExample
shouldAdvice or opinion. It is a good idea, but you can choose.You should drink more water.
You shouldn't eat so much candy.
have to / has toObligation from outside — a rule made by someone else.I have to wear a uniform at school.
She has to finish her homework.
mustStrong obligation, often from the speaker, or something very important.You must stop at a red light.
We must be quiet in the library.
The trickiest pair on the test:
must not = DON'T DO ITIt is forbidden. You have no choice.
You mustn't touch the fire.
don't have to = NO NEEDIt is not necessary, but you can if you want.
You don't have to come early — it is optional.
Only "have to" changes with he/she/it: I/you/we/they have to · he/she/it has to. Should and must never change — never "musts" or "shoulds".
Should = a good idea. Have to = someone else's rule. Must = very strong, no arguing!
2

⏳ Present Continuous

We use the present continuous for something that is happening right now or around this time.

am / is / are  +  verb + ING
I am wearing a blue shirt. · She is reading a book. · They are playing football.
Spelling of the -ing form:
  • Most verbs: just add -ing → play → playing, eat → eating
  • Ends in a silent -e: drop the e → make → making, write → writing
  • Short verb, one vowel + one consonant: double it → run → running, sit → sitting, swim → swimming
  • Ends in -ie: change to -y → lie → lying, die → dying

Present Simple or Present Continuous?

Present SimpleHabits, routines and things that are always true.
I play football every Saturday.
Signal words: always, usually, often, every day, never, on Mondays.
Present ContinuousHappening now or around now — temporary.
I am playing football right now.
Signal words: now, right now, at the moment, today, look!, listen!
Stative verbs describe a state, not an action, and usually do NOT take -ing: like, love, hate, want, need, know, understand, believe, have (when it means "own").
✅ I like pizza.   ❌ I am liking pizza.
3

🕰️ Past Continuous

We use the past continuous for an action that was in progress at a moment in the past — it had started but had not finished yet.

was / were  +  verb + ING
was → I, he, she, it  ·  were → you, we, they
At 8 o'clock last night I was doing my homework. · They were watching TV when I arrived.

The interrupted action — this is the classic test question:

A long action was happening (past continuous) and a short action interrupted it (past simple).
I was walking home when it started to rain.
Long action = was walking (continuous) · Short interruption = started (simple)
WHILE + long actionWhile I was cooking, the phone rang.
"While" usually comes before the continuous verb.
WHEN + short actionI was cooking when the phone rang.
"When" usually comes before the simple verb.
Past SimplePast Continuous
UseA finished actionAn action in progress
Formverb + -ed, or irregularwas/were + -ing
ExampleI watched a film.I was watching a film.
4

📊 Comparatives & Superlatives

We use comparatives to compare two things, and superlatives to say which one is the top of the whole group.

Type of adjectiveComparativeSuperlative
1 syllable
tall, fast, old		+ -er
taller, faster		the + -est
the tallest
1 syllable, vowel + consonant
big, hot, thin		double the consonant
bigger, hotter		the biggest
Ends in -y
happy, easy, funny		y → i + er
happier, easier		the happiest
2 or more syllables
beautiful, expensive, difficult		more + adjective
more beautiful		the most + adjective
the most beautiful

Irregular adjectives — you have to memorise these:

AdjectiveComparativeSuperlative
goodbetterthe best
badworsethe worst
farfarther / furtherthe farthest / furthest
littlelessthe least
many / muchmorethe most
Little words that matter:
  • Comparatives use than → My bag is heavier than yours.
  • Superlatives use the → She is the fastest runner in the class.
  • To say two things are equal: as … as → He is as tall as his brother.
Never do both! ❌ more taller · ❌ the most biggest · ❌ gooder. Choose either -er/-est or more/most.
Count the syllables first. Short word? -er / -est. Long word? more / most. Irregular? Just memorise!
5

🚦 Transitional Words

Transitional words are the bridges between your ideas. Without them, writing sounds choppy — lots of short sentences that do not connect. With them, your story flows.

WordWhat it doesExample
howeverShows a contrast or a surprise. Similar to "but".I studied a lot. However, the test was still hard.
thereforeShows a result or conclusion. Similar to "so".It was raining. Therefore, we stayed inside.
in additionAdds another idea. Similar to "also".She plays piano. In addition, she sings in the choir.
on the other handPresents the opposite side of an idea.Cats are quiet. On the other hand, dogs are playful.
consequentlyShows what happened as a result. Similar to "as a result".He forgot his ticket. Consequently, he missed the train.
❌ ChoppyI woke up late. I missed the bus. I was tired. I arrived at school. I was worried.
✅ SmoothI woke up late, therefore I missed the bus. In addition, I was very tired. However, I still arrived at school on time.
Contrast → however / on the other hand. Result → therefore / consequently. Extra idea → in addition.
6

✍️ Writing: Compare and Contrast

In a compare-and-contrast text you explain how two things are alike (compare) and how they are different (contrast).

Structure:
  • Introduction — name the two things you will compare.
  • Similarities — how they are alike.
  • Differences — how they are different.
  • Conclusion — what you learned from comparing them.
Words for SIMILARITIESbothsimilarlylikewisealsoas well asthe same as
Words for DIFFERENCEShoweverin contrastunlikewhereason the other handbut
Plan first with a Venn diagram: two overlapping circles. What only A has goes on the left, what only B has goes on the right, and what both share goes in the middle.
🏛️ Shortcut for your writing topic: the teacher suggests comparing Ancient Rome and Greece Heritage. The Social Studies study sheet already has a full Greece × Rome comparison table — architecture, way of life, agriculture, religion and society. Use it as your Venn diagram! →
📰 Persuasive Article — a text written to convince the reader.
  • State your opinion clearly at the beginning.
  • Give reasons and evidence (facts, examples, numbers).
  • Organise the information into a clear sequence, using transition words.
  • Finish with a strong conclusion or a call to action.
7

🎤 Oral Language: Giving a Speech

  • Plan it in three parts: a beginning that grabs attention, a middle with your main points, and an ending that people remember.
  • Use notes, not a full script. Write only key words on a card — if you read every word, you will look down the whole time.
  • Make eye contact with different people in the room.
  • Speak slowly and clearly, louder than you think you need to. Pause between ideas.
  • Use transition words out loud — first, in addition, however, finally — so the audience can follow you.
  • Practise out loud at least twice before the real thing. Practising in your head is not the same!
Nervous is normal. Take one deep breath before you start, and slow down — everyone speaks too fast when nervous.